Judith Rich Harris on Birth Order

Last updated: 4/4/04

four essays on birth order | errata | the 179 findings in Ernst & Angst

Birth Order

Politics and the Life Sciences issue on birth order --
articles by Townsend, Sulloway, Johnson, Harris & others

Errata, Appendix 1 of The Nurture Assumption (hardcover edition)

(Note: some but not all of these errors have been corrected in the paperback edition. The page numbers are the same in the paperback edition.)

p. 370, line 3
115. The total number of subjects in those 115 studies
Should be:
116. The total number of subjects in those 116 studies

p. 370, 3rd paragraph, line 3:
if you flip a hundred coins 197 times
Should be:
if you flip a hundred coins 196 times

p. 370, 3rd paragraph, next-to-last line:
many more than 197 times
Should be:
many more than 196 times

p. 371, 3rd line up from head:
coins were not flipped just 197 times
Should be:
coins were not flipped just 196 times

pp. 416-417, endnote to p. 371 should read as follows:

Interactions: In his unpublished manuscript (January 25, 1998), Sulloway writes that he has taken account of the additional no-difference outcomes produced by studies that yielded interactions. In the case of a two-way interaction--where, for example, sex interacts with birth order in such a way that favorable results are found for boys but not for girls--he reports that he counted the results as one favorable outcome and one no-difference outcome; in the case of a three-way interaction, he reports that he counted all four possible outcomes. Since there were many interactions in the studies reviewed by E & A, this procedure would noticeably increase the number of findings per study. Thus, in order to end up with 196 findings, Sulloway's analysis must have included considerably fewer than the 116 studies I found in E & A (hence, fewer than 75,000 subjects). In his unpublished manuscript, Sulloway reports that he eliminated from his analysis, for a variety of reasons, a number of studies that E & A had considered acceptable (most of which were included in my tally). However, it also appears that he included in his analysis other studies that E & A had written off as unacceptable or inconclusive. I have been unable to determine the precise number of studies included in Sulloway's analysis.

The 179 "Studies" (actually, Findings) in Ernst & Angst's (1983) Text and Tables (pp. 93 - 189) in which Sibship Size and/or Social Class Were Controlled, Listed Alphabetically by Researcher (see The Nurture Assumption, pp. 368-374)

Summary: 52 findings favorable to Sulloway's (1996) theory, 13 in the wrong direction, 109 no difference, and 5 unclear

Researcher & Publication Date	Control Method	No. of Subjects	Description of Subjects*	Measuremt Method**	Outcome re Sulloway's theory***	Ernst & Angst Page No.
Abramson 73	sib size	122	ch (black preschool)	beh	n	139 & Table 29
Adams 67	soc cl	?	ch (grade sch)	teachers' ratings	f	134 & Table 28
Adams 67	soc cl	?	ch (grade sch)	peers' ratings	n	182 & Table 41
Adams 72	soc cl	371	ch (4th & 5th gr)	teachers' ratings	f	134 & Table 28
Alexander 66, 68	both	1410	teen (hi sch males)	peers' ratings	u	182 & Table 41
Ballante 73	sib size	?	teen	self	n	162
Barrett 76	sib size	857	ad (college)	self	n	172 & Table 38
Bartelt 73	intrafam	258	teen (hi sch)	self	n	95 & Table 17
Bartlett et al 68	soc cl	31	ch (8-10 yr old males)	?	u	103 & Table 19
Biegelson 76	sib size (=2)	941 + 942	ad (college)	self	n	146 & Table 31
Biegelson 76	intrafam	1883	ad (college)	self	n	95 & Table 17
Biegelson 76	sib size	941 + 942	ad (college)	self	n	135 & Table 28
Blustein 67	sib size (=2)	350	ch (grade sch)	teachers' ratings	f	134 & Table 28
Blustein 67	sib size (=2)	341 to 383	ch (4th-6th gr)	teachers' ratings	f	125 & Table 25
Blustein 67	sib size	350	ch (4th-6th gr)	self	n	155 & Table 33
Boor 72	sib size	116	college	self	n	120 & Table 24
Brittain 66	sib size (=2)	?	teen (9th & 10th gr females)	self	n	121
Casher 77	both	127	ad (college males)	beh	f	106 & Table 20
Catlin 72	soc cl	1176	ch (3rd & 6th grade)	self	?	103 & Table 19
Corneau 80	intrafam (size=2)	64	teen (hi sch)	self	u	151 & Table 32
David 73	both	79	ch (5th grade)	beh	n	109 & Table 21
Davie et al 72	soc cl	1548	ch (7 yr)	teachers' ratings	?	157 & Table 34
De Avila 70	sib size, socially homogeneous sample	196	ch (6th gr)	self	f	132 & Table 28
De Avila 70	sib size, middle- class sample	196	ch (6th gr)	self	f	120 & Table 24
Dean 47	intrafam (sib size=2)	40	ch (below age 7)	parents' ratings	f	167 & Table 37
Dixon 80	soc cl	419	teen (young black pregnant females)	self	n	124 & Table 25
Elder 62a 62b	both	7274	teen (hi sch)	self	f	134 & Table 28
Elliot et al 70	intrafam (sib size=2)	410	teen (hi sch)	self	n	135 & Table 28
Eysenck et al 69	sib size	4000	ch (11 yr)	self	n	159 & Table 35
Eysenck et al 69	sib size	4000	ch (11 yr)	self	n	158 & Table 34
Falbo et al 79	both	1041	ad (college)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Farley 75	sib size	141	ad (college females)	self	n	159 & Table 35
Farley 75a	sib size	141	ad (college females)	self	n	158 & Table 34
Farley 78a	sib size	50	ad (college females)	self	f	151 & Table 32
Fox 76	soc cl	122	in (kibbutz babies)	beh	f	108 & Table 21
Frankel 68	sib size	169	ch (6th grade)	self	n	141 & Table 30
Frankel 68	both	113	ch (6th grade)	self	n	94 & Table 17
Frankel 68	sib size	113	ch (6th gr)	self	n	162 & Table 36
Glass et al 74	both	2523	teen (hi sch)	self	n	135 & Table 28
Gormly 68	sib size	359	ad (college)	self	n	171 & Table 38
Hall 63	both	104	ad (college males)	self	n	165 & Table 37
Hall 63, Hall et al 64	both	104	ad (college males)	self	f	154 & Table 33
Hall 63, Hall et al 64	both	104	ad (college males)	self	f	146 & Table 31
Hall 63, Hall et al 64	both	104	ad (college males)	self	f	142 & Table 40
Hall 63, Hall et al 64	both	104	ad (college males)	self	f	143 & Table 30
Hall 63, Hall et al 64	both	104	ad (college males)	self	n	166 & Table 37
Hall 63, Hall et al 64	both	104	ad (college males)	self	f	163 & Table 36
Hall 77	sib size	140	ad (college)	self	f	142 & Table 40
Hardy 72	soc cl (middle- class sample)	106	ch (black 5th & 6th grade)	self	f	146 & Table 31
Harris 64, Harris et al 68	soc cl	1200	teen (hi sch & prof sch)	self	f	163 & Table 36
Hess 71	sib size	?	ad (college)	self	n	124 & Table 25
Hornbostel et al 80	sib size (=2)	120	ad (college)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Jamieson 69	soc cl	84	ch (10-12 yr)	beh	n	101 & Table 18
Janisch 73	both	300	teen (12th gr, varied samples)	self	n	134 & Table 28
Kaltsounis 78	intrafam (4 brothers)	36	ch (grade sch males)	self	?	151 & Table 32
Kaplan 70	soc cl	500	ad (adult males, Texans)	self	n	155 & Table 33
Keetz 79	both	182	ad (college)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Klockars 68	sib size	?	ad (college)	self	n	147 & Table 31
Klockars 68	both	?	ad (university)	self	n	166 & Table 37
Klockars 68	both	?	ad (college)	self	u	166 & Table 37
Koch 55a 55b	both	384	ch (5 yrs)	teachers' ratings	n	125 & Table 25
Koch 55a 56d	both	360	ch (5 - 6 yr)	teachers' ratings	n	154 & Table 33
Koch 55a, 56d, 57a	both	360	ch (5 - 6 yr)	teachers' ratings	n	166 & Table 37
Koch 55a 57a	both	360	ch (5 - 6 yr	teachers' ratings	f	140 & Table 29
Koch 56b	both	360	ch (5 - 6 yr	teachers' ratings	n	147 & Table 31
Koch 56b	both	384	ch (5 - 6 yr)	teachers' ratings	n	182 & Table 41
Koch 56c	both	360	ch (5 - 6 yr	teachers' ratings	f	147 & Table 31
Koch 56c	both	360	ch (5 - 6 yr)	teachers' ratings	n	163 & Table 36
Koch 56d	both	350	ch (5 - 6 yr)	teachers' ratings	n	157 & Table 34
Koch 57a	sib size (=2)	192	ch (5 - 6 yr)	teachers' ratings	n	103 & Table 19
Koch 60	both (sib size=2)	360	ch (6 yr)	siblings' ratings	f	97
Krinsky 63	sib size	159	ad (adult males, mail survey)	self	n	120 & Table 24
Krinsky 63	soc cl	182	ad (scientists)	self	u	150 & Table 32
Laitman 75	sib size	89	teen (hi sch)	self	n	154 & Table 33
Laitman 75	sib size	89	teen (jr hi)	self	f	94 & Table 17
Lessing et al 67	both	855	ch & teen (grade & hi sch)	self	n	157 & Table 34
Lessing et al 72	both	321	ch (6th-8th gr)	self	n	157 & Table 34
Lessing et al 72	both	238	ch (6th-8th gr)	self	u	157 & Table 34
Leventhal 70	sib size	145	ad (college males)	self	n	141 & Table 30
Macbeth 75	sib size	716 + 265	ad (college)	self	n	143 & Table 30
Macbeth 75	sib size	716 + 256	ad (college)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Macbeth 75	sib size	716 + 265	ad (college)	self	n	147 & Table 31
Macbeth 75	sib size	716 + 265	ad (college)	self	n	146 & Table 31
Macbeth 75	sib size	716 + 265	ad (college)	self	n	150 & Table 32
Macbeth 75	sib size	716 + 265	ad (college)	self	n	119 & Table 24
Macbeth 75	sib size	215 [265?	ad (college)	self	n	158 & Table 34
Macbeth 75	sib size	716	ad (college)	self	u	158 & Table 34
Macbeth 75	sib size	716 + 265	ad (college)	self	n	166 & Table 37
Macbeth 75, 76	sib size	716 + 265	ad (college)	self	u	120 & Table 24
MacDonald 71b	sib size	768 + 476	ad (college)	self	n	115 & Table 23
MacFarlane et al 54	soc cl	126 to 41****	ch (21 months to 14 yr)	parents' ratings	f	160 & Table 35
Marjoribanks 79	both	280	ad (college)	self	n	142 & Table 30
Masterson 71	sib size	155	college	self	f	120 & Table 24
McAllister et al 74	sib size (lg sibships, lower cl)	635	teen (9th gr)	self	n	124 & Table 25
McArthur 56	intrafam (sib size=2)	172	no age given; probably ranges from ch to ad	parents' ratings	f	167 & Table 37
McCormick et al 75	sib size	120	ad (college)	self	n	159 & Table 35
Mealiea 73	sib size	148	ad (college females)	self	f	103 & Table 19
Miller et al 76	sib size	1750	ch (1st grade)	self (?)	n	103 & Table 19
Miller et al 76	controlled for race; did they control sib size?	1750	ch (1st gr)	beh	n	112 & Table 22
Miller et al 76	both	1750	ch (1st gr)	teachers' ratings	f	182 & Table 41
Miller et al 76	sib size	1750	ch (1st gr)	peers' ratings	f	181 & Table 41
Mukherjee 68	soc cl	472	ad (college, India)	self	n	134 & Table 28
Munz et al 68	sib size (=2 or 3)	200	ad (college)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Murray 71	both	709	teen (hi sch males)	peers' ratings	n	182 & Table 41
Neetz 74	sib size	?	ch (grade sch)	teachers' ratings	n	147 & Table 31
Newbert 69	intrafam (sib size=3)	120	ch (1st-8th gr)	teachers' ratings	?	167 & Table 37
Newbert 69	intrafam (sib size=3)	120	ch (1st-8th gr)	parents' ratings	n	167 & Table 37
Nisbet 68	sib size	2410 + 494	ad (college males)	beh	f	105 & Table 20
Oberlander 71	soc cl	250	teen (18 yr old)	self	f	146 & Table 31
Oberlander et al 70	soc cl	250	teen (age 18)	self	f	146 & Table 31
Owyang 71	sib size	82	ad (college)	self	n	120 & Table 24
Owyang 71	sib size (=1 or 2)	120	ad (college)	self	f	158 & Table 34
Palmer 66	soc cl	55	ad (college males)	self	f	94 & Table 17
Payne 71	sib size (text, p. 120, but table says no)	1023	ad (college males)	self	n	120 & Table 24
Price 69	intrafam (at least 2 ch of same sex)	612	ad (adult offspring)	parents' ratings	f	168 & Table 37
Purpura 71	soc cl	311	teen (hi sch males)	self	f	94 & Table 17
Query et al 73	"socially homogeneous sample"	50	teen (hi sch males)	self	f	120 & Table 24
Rhine 68, 69, 74	soc cl	128	ch (5th & 6th gr females)	beh	f	112 & Table 22
Robertson 71	soc cl	297	ch (10-11 yr old males)	self	u	103 & Table 19
Robertson 71	both	297	teen (14 yr males)	self	n	158 & Table 34
Robertson 71	soc cl	297	teen (14 yr males)	self	u	160 & Table 35
Roodin et al 78	sib size	286	ad ("students," presumably college)	beh	n	130 & Table 27
Rosen 61	both	427 + 367	ch (11 yr males, grade sch males)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Rosen 64	intrafam	122	ch (11 yr old males)	self	n	95 & Table 17
Rosenberg 65	sib size	5024	teen (hi sch)	self	n	154 & Table 33
Rosenberg et al 64	sib size	352	ch (4th - 6th grade)	self	n	104 & Table 19
Rosenberg et al 69a	sib size	352	ch (5th & 6th grade)	self	n	139 & Table 29
Rosenblüh et al 70	soc cl (middle cl)	199	teen (hi sch)	self	n	134 & Table 28
Sampson 62, et al 67	sib size (=2)	251	teen (hi sch)	self	n	103 & Table 19
Sampson 67	sib size (= 1 or 2)	251	teen (hi sch)	self	n	150 & Table 32
Sampson et al 67	sib size	251	teen (hi sch)	self	n	120 & Table 24
Sampson et al 67	sib size (= 1 or 2)	251	teen (hi sch)	self	f	132 & Table 28
Sampson et al 67 (& Hancock 67)	sib size (=2)	251	teen (hi sch)	beh	f	112 & Table 22
Schachter 59	sib size (?)	108	ad (college females)	beh	f	115
Schettino et al 76	sib size	1500	college	self	n	128
Schmuck 63	sib size (=2)	?	? (females)	self	n	121
Schooler 72a,b,c	sib size	3101	ad (American employed men)	beh	n	119
Schwartz 76	sib size	100	ad (college males)	self	n	147 & Table 31
Sears 70	sib size	140	ch (12 yr)	self	n	171 & Table 38
Sells et al 63	sib size	1003	ch (3rd-6th gr)	peers' ratings	?	181 & Table 41
Sellwood 75	intrafam	128	teen (hi sch males)	self	n	151 & Table 32
Singer 71	both	4440	teen (hi school)	self	f	94 & Table 17
Singer 71	both	4440	teen (hi sch)	self	n	94 & Table 17
Smith 71	both	1415	ch & ad (grade sch & college)	self	f	94 & Table 17
Solomon 77	sib size (lg vs small sibships)	196	ad (college mental health clinic)	self	n	121 & Table 24
Staffieri et al 70	sib size	?	ch (10-11 yr olds)	self	n	161
Stenger 75	sib size	275	ad (college)	self	n	146 & Table 31
Stenger 75	both	240	ad (college)	self	f	166 & Table 37
Stenning 68	soc cl	?	ch (10-14 yr, U.S.)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Stenning 68	soc cl	?	ch (10-14 yr, Mexican)	self	n	133 & Table 28
Stewart 67	sib size (=3)	100	ad (college males)	self	n	150 & Table 32
Stewart 67	both (?)	?	?	beh	f	119
Stewart 67	sib size	100	ad (college males)	self	n	165 & Table 37
Stokes et al 77	both	6752	ad (women)	self	n	124 & Table 25
Stotland et al 71	not clear; "well-planned"	? (many)	ad (college)	self	n	161
Stroup et al 65	soc cl	93	ad (college)	self	n	165 & Table 37
Struempfer 73	both	318	ad (college)	self	n	135 & Table 28
Sutton-Smith et al 70	intrafam	120	ad (college)	siblings' ratings (and self)	f	97
Sutton-Smith et al 70	sib size (=2)	80	ad (college females)	self	n	140 & Table 29
Sutton-Smith et al 70	both	40	ch (8-11 yr old males)	self	n	94 & Table 17
Sutton-Smith et al 71	sib size	80	ad (college females)	self	f	Table 17
Sutton-Smith et al 70	intrafam	140	ch (3rd-5th gr)	siblings' ratings	f	97
Sutton-Smith et al 64	sib size (=2)	137	ad (college)	self	n	145 & Table 31
Sutton-Smith et al 70	intrafam (middle-class)	95	ch (5th & 6th gr)	siblings' ratings (and self)	f	97
Sutton-Smith et al 70	sib size	80	ad (college females)	self	n	165 & Table 37
Sutton-Smith et al 70	sib size	?	ad (college)	self	f	161
Swanson et al 72	sib size	704	ad (college)	self	n	158 & Table 34
Tomeh 71	soc cl	523	ad (college females)	self	f	94 & Table 17
Turner 62	both	2175	teen (hi sch)	self	n	135 & Table 28
Vaughn 75	sib size	102	ad (college)	self	u	166 & Table 37
Vuyk 59	both	125	ch (8-12 yr middle cl)	parents' & researcher's ratings	u	167 & Table 37
Vuyk 61	intrafam (sib size=2)	868	ch & teen (6-16 yr)	parents' ratings	f	167 & Table 37
Vuyk 63	intrafam (sib size=2)	520	ch & teen (9-19 yr)	parents' ratings	u	167 & Table 37
Waters et al 67	sib size	564	ad (college)	self	n	120 & Table 24
Watkins et al 80	sib size	204	ch (11-13 yr Filipino females from lg sibships)	self	n	154 & Table 33
Weidl 77	sib size	97	teen (hi sch)	self	n	150 & Table 32
Wilks et al 79	sib size	68	ch (grade sch)	self	n	151 & Table 32
Yando et al 75	both	144	ch (5-8 yr)	beh	n	109 & Table 21
Yang et al 73	soc cl	128	ad (male college, Taiwan)	self	n	133 & Table 28

* ad = adults; ch = children; cl = class
**self = self-report questionnaire or interview; beh = behavioral measure
*** f = favorable to Sulloway's theory; u = unfavorable (opposite to Sulloway's predictions); n= no difference; ? = unclear
****126 declining to 41 (longitudinal study with loss of Ss)

References: Ernst, C., & Angst, J. (1983). Birth order: Its influence on personality. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Pantheon.

Version 1.0
Posted February 8, 2002

Copyright 2002 by Judith Rich Harris.
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